Difference Between Conjugation and Resonance Compare the ...
16.1: Conjugation - Chemistry LibreTexts
Conjugation And Resonance In Organic Chemistry
Conjugation - Chemistry
Conjugation, Resonance, and Dienes Organic Chemistry ...
6.3: Delocalization, Conjugated Systems, and Resonance ...
Inductive, Electromeric, Resonance, Mesomeric ...
What is the difference between resonance and π conjugation
conjugation chemistry resonance
conjugation chemistry resonance - win
For Organic Chemistry, what's the difference between Conjugation and Resonance?
They seem to be used interchangeably, but there has to be some sort of a difference; otherwise, we won't need to have 2 words as my English professor once told me.
Vaccines On Demand, with Engineered Cells (+All the synthetic biology research this week)
On-Demand Vaccines for Bacterial Infections: A new study, published in Science Advances, describes a method to produce conjugate vaccines—which are used to prevent some of the leading causes of vaccine-preventable deaths, according to the World Health Organization—using ground up, freeze-dried bacteria. E. coli bacteria were first engineered to produce an antigen for a pathogenic microbe of choice. Then, the researchers ripped open the cells and added in a piece of DNA encoding a carrier protein, which attaches to those antigens and helps display them to the immune system. The team turned the whole mixture into a powder that could be transported and stored at room temperature. Then, to make a dose of vaccine, they just add water. The freeze-dried tube produces the vaccine, on demand, in about one hour. As a proof of concept, the researchers manufactured vaccines that protected mice against a disease-causing bacteria, Francisella tularensis. The work was authored by researchers at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. Why It Matters: Most vaccines need to be stored at cold temperatures. This makes it difficult to transport them to parts of the world without a temperature-controlled supply chain. This study could help make vaccines accessible to a greater number of people. The technique is also very general; it can be used to make just about any conjugate vaccine that is on the market today. Conjugate vaccines are already used to prevent a lot of childhood diseases, including multiple types of bacterial meningitis, which killed an estimated 300,000 people in 2016. That’s according to a 2018 study30387-9/fulltext) in The Lancet Neurology. Cas13a Treats SARS-CoV-2 and Flu: DNA targeting CRISPR enzymes, including Cas9 and Cas12a, can manipulate genomes with ease. But there are also CRISPR proteins that target RNA, including the Cas13 ‘family.’ Since influenza and SARS-CoV-2 are both RNA-based viruses, Cas13 can be used to target, and chop up, their genetic material. For a new study, published in Nature Biotechnology, researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, in Atlanta, used Cas13a to cut specific regions of the influenza and SARS-CoV-2 viruses. They first searched for guide RNAs that could cut these viruses in a cell culture model. Then, they packaged up an mRNA sequence encoding Cas13a, together with its ‘guides,’ and delivered them into mouse airways with a nebulizer (a device that converts liquid into a fine mist). In the mice, “Cas13a degraded influenza RNA in lung tissue efficiently when delivered after infection, whereas in hamsters, Cas13a delivery reduced SARS-CoV-2 replication and reduced symptoms.” Why It Matters: Vaccines are great for fending off diseases. But knocking out a respiratory infection—after it has already happened—is much more challenging. This study shows that a CRISPR-based system can be programmed to target viruses, and can be easily delivered into airways with a nebulizer. This approach could likely be used to target other types of respiratory infections in the future. Glucose Sensor Upgrade: For a new study, published in Nature Communications, researchers at the University of Toronto merged engineered cells with a standard glucose meter, expanding the number of molecules that can be measured with these common devices. Glucose test strips are typically coated with an enzyme, called glucose oxidase, that senses sugar and converts that signal into electricity. The researchers built a genetic circuit that can sense a wider array of molecules—like an antigen from a pathogenic microbe—and produce a commensurate amount of sugar. Standard glucose test strips can then be used to measure the concentration of those ‘sensed’ molecules in about an hour. The genetic circuit + glucose sensor combo was used to measure small molecules and synthetic RNAs, including “RNA sequences for typhoid, paratyphoid A and B, and related drug resistance genes” at attomolar concentrations. Why It Matters: The ongoing pandemic has highlighted the need for scalable, rapid testing. By leveraging a household technology—glucose sensors—to detect a wider range of molecules, perhaps this study could be an entryway for synthetic biology; a way to get engineered cells into the hands of more people. Open the Genetic Floodgates: There are many ways to “turn on” a single gene, but few options to do the same for many genes at once. The Cas12a protein, though, is uniquely suited to this purpose. For a new preprint, which was posted to bioRxiv and has not been peer-reviewed, researchers at the University of Edinburgh used a Cas12a protein from the bacterium, Francisella novicida, to activate six genetic targets at once. They encoded six crRNAs—nucleotide sequences that direct Cas12a to a genetic target—in a single piece of DNA, and swapped around their order to study how their position impacts the efficiency of gene editing. They found that the crRNA in the last position was produced in the lowest amount. Why It Matters: Researchers have been activating specific genes in cells for decades. But only recently—in the last few years—has ‘multiplexed’ activation become simple; routine even. This new preprint is important, in my opinion, because of the depth of its experiments. The team played with the order of crRNAs, as I’ve already written, but they also tested the synergism of crRNAs. In other words, can you turn a gene on at even higher levels if you target it with two crRNAs instead of one? (Yes.) CRISPR Clocks: The Cas9 protein cuts DNA at a steady pace. Cut…cut…cut, like a wobbly metronome. For a new study00014-3), published in Cell, researchers at the Yonsei University College of Medicine, in Seoul, Korea, used this “CRISPR clock” to record the timing of cellular events. They figured out how long it takes Cas9 to cut DNA (every DNA sequence takes a different amount of time to cut) and then sequenced the DNA to figure out the amount of time that had elapsed. The “clocks” were tested in HEK293T, a type of human liver cell, and also in mice. The clocks could be turned “on” by inflammation or heat. In one experiment, the researchers put cells with these clocks into mice, and then injected the animals with fat molecules that cause inflammation. They sequenced the cells, and found that they could determine the elapsed time, from genetic sequencing alone, with a mean error of just 7.6 percent. Why It Matters: Biological clocks are useful for many reasons. The researchers said that their CRISPR clocks could be used to record when a pre-cancerous cell is turned into a cancer cell, for example. Scientists could expose cells to toxins, for example, and then measure the amount of time that it takes for cancerous growth to begin. The CRISPR clocks could be used to study these effects inside of living cells. More Studies
(Review) Transcription factor-based biosensor for dynamic control in yeast for natural product synthesis. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. Open Access. Link
A protein-based biosensor for detecting calcium by magnetic resonance imaging. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Fundamental Discoveries
A genome-wide screen in the mouse liver reveals sex-specific and cell non-autonomous regulation of cell fitness. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Photoactivatable CaMKII induces synaptic plasticity in single synapses. Nature Communications. Open Access. Link
Resolving phylogenetic and biochemical barriers to functional expression of heterologous iron-sulphur cluster enzymes. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Intercellular communication induces glycolytic synchronization waves between individually oscillating cells. PNAS. Open Access. Link
A comprehensive phenotypic CRISPR-Cas9 screen of the ubiquitin pathway uncovers roles of ubiquitin ligases in mitosis. Molecular Cell. Link00014-9)
Genetic Circuits
Ultrasensitive molecular controllers for quasi-integral feedback. Cell Systems. Link00035-1)
Genetic Engineering & Control
Small-molecule inhibitors of histone deacetylase improve CRISPR-based adenine base editing. Nucleic Acids Research. Open Access. Link
A piggyBac‐mediated transgenesis system for the temporary expression of CRISPCas9 in rice. Plant Biotechnology Journal. Link
Expanding the SiMPl plasmid toolbox for use with spectinomycin/streptomycin. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Joint universal modular plasmids (JUMP): a flexible vector platform for synthetic biology. Synthetic Biology. Open Access. Link
Medicine and Diagnostics
Engineering advanced logic and distributed computing in human CAR immune cells. Nature Communications. Open Access. Link
A thermostable, flexible RNA vaccine delivery platform for pandemic response. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Toolkit for quickly generating and characterizing molecular probes specific for SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid as a primer for future coronavirus pandemic preparedness. ACS Synthetic Biology. Link
Metabolic Engineering
An artificial self-assembling nanocompartment for organising metabolic pathways in yeast. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Transport engineering for improving production and secretion of valuable alkaloids in Escherichia coli. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Autophagy‐inducing peptide increases CHO cell monoclonal antibody production in batch and fed‐batch cultures. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Link
Quorum sensing-mediated protein degradation for dynamic metabolic pathway control in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Metabolic Engineering. Link
(Review) Synthetic biology approaches to enhance microalgal productivity. Trends in Biotechnology. Open Access. Link00004-4)
A biological route to conjugated alkenes: Microbial production of hepta-1,3,5-triene. ACS Synthetic Biology. Open Access. Link
(Review) Yeast-based biosynthesis of natural products from xylose. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. Open Access. Link
New Technology
Synthetic protein quality control to enhance full-length translation in bacteria. Nature Chemical Biology. Link
Scalable characterization of the PAM requirements of CRISPR–Cas enzymes using HT-PAMDA. Nature Protocols. Link
A platform for post-translational spatiotemporal control of cellular proteins. Synthetic Biology. Open Access. Link
An all-to-all approach to the identification of sequence-specific readers for epigenetic DNA modifications on cytosine. Nature Communications. Open Access. Link
Protein Engineering
Computation-guided optimization of split protein systems. Nature Chemical Biology. Link
Efficient Lewis acid catalysis of an abiological reaction in a de novo protein scaffold. Nature Chemistry. Link
Periplasmic expression of SpyTagged antibody fragments enables rapid modular antibody assembly. Cell Chemical Biology. Link00011-8)
Systems Biology and Modelling
A MATLAB toolbox for modeling genetic circuits in cell-free systems. Synthetic Biology. Open Access. Link
Enzyme kinetics of CRISPR molecular diagnostics. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Potential landscapes, bifurcations, and robustness of tristable networks. ACS Synthetic Biology. Link
Modeling of copy number variability in Pichia pastoris. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Link
I deduced my title from their respective pka's but I'm having troubles analysing in terms of electronegativity, resonance stabilization, inductive effects, and size of delocalization of charge. Any help would be appreciated.
Test Bank, Solutions for Organic Chemistry 6th Edition 6e By Janice Smith
SMTBPORTAL TEAM - smtbportal(@)gmail(dot)com - We Provide Test Bank, Solution Manual & ebooks for all Subjects at very reasonable price. Organic Chemistry 6th Edition ; ISBN10: 1260119106 ; ISBN13: 9781260119107 #Test bank for Organic Chemistry 6th Edition By Janice Smith #Solution Manual for Organic Chemistry 6th Edition By Janice Smith #Ebook for The Organic Chemistry 6th Edition By Janice Smith Table of Contents for the above book are given below:- Chapter 1 Structure and Bonding Chapter 2 Acids and Bases Chapter 3 Introduction to Organic Molecules and Functional Groups Chapter 4 Alkanes Chapter 5 Stereochemistry Chapter 6 Understanding Organic Reactions Chapter 7 Alkyl Halides and Nucleophilic Substitution Chapter 8 Alkyl Halides and Elimination Reactions Chapter 9 Alcohols, Ethers, and Related Compounds Chapter 10 Alkenes and Addition Reactions Chapter 11 Alkynes and Synthesis Chapter 12 Oxidation and Reduction Chapter 13 Radical Reactions Chapter 14 Conjugation, Resonance, and Dienes Chapter 15 Benzene and Aromatic Compounds Chapter 16 Reactions of Aromatic Compounds Chapter 17 Introduction to Carbonyl Chemistry: Organometallic Reagents; Oxidation and Reduction Chapter 18 Aldehydes and Ketones—Nucleophilic Addition Chapter 19 Carboxylic Acids and Nitriles Chapter 20 Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives- Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Chapter 21 Substitution Reactions of Carbonyl Compounds at the α-Carbon Chapter 22 Carbonyl Condensation Reactions Chapter 23 Amines Chapter 24 Carbon-Carbon Bond-Forming Reactions in Organic Synthesis Chapter 25 Pericyclic Reactions Chapter 26 Carbohydrates Chapter 27 Amino Acids and Proteins Chapter 28 Synthetic Polymers Chapter 29 Lipids TO REQUEST THE ABOVE TITLE , Please contact us via e-mail ONLY at smtbportal @ gmail dot com , We also have CONNECT Assignments / LearnSmart Quizzes for this text. Email for more info. Please DO NOT POST/REPLY HERE for any inquiry just email us at smtbportal(@)gmail(dot)com , Thanks
Test Bank, Solutions for Organic Chemistry with Biological Topics, 6th Edition 6e By Janice Smith
SMTBPORTAL TEAM - smtbportal(@)gmail(dot)com - We Provide Test Bank, Solution Manual & ebooks for all Subjects at very reasonable price. Organic Chemistry with Biological Topics 6th Edition ; ISBN10: 1260325296 ; ISBN13: 9781260325294 #Test bank for Organic Chemistry with Biological Topics 6th Edition By Janice Smith and Heidi Vollmer-Snarr #Solution Manual for Organic Chemistry with Biological Topics 6th Edition By Janice Smith and Heidi Vollmer-Snarr #Ebook for Organic Chemistry with Biological Topics 6th Edition By Janice Smith and Heidi Vollmer-Snarr Table of Contents for the above book are given below:- Chapter 1 Structure and Bonding Chapter 2 Acids and Bases Chapter 3 Introduction to Organic Molecules and Functional Groups Chapter 4 Alkanes Chapter 5 Stereochemistry Chapter 6 Understanding Organic Reactions Chapter 7 Alkyl Halides and Nucleophilic Substitution Chapter 8 Alkyl Halides and Elimination Reactions Chapter 9 Alcohols, Ethers, and Related Compounds Chapter 10 Alkenes and Alkynes Chapter 11 Oxidation and Reduction Chapter 12 Conjugation, Resonance, and Dienes Chapter 13 Introduction to Carbonyl Chemistry; Organometallic Reagents; Oxidation and Reduction Chapter 14 Aldehydes and Ketones—Nucleophilic Addition Chapter 15 Carboxylic Acids and Nitriles Chapter 16 Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives—Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Chapter 17 Substitution Reactions of Carbonyl Compounds at the α Carbon Chapter 18 Carbonyl Condensation Reactions Chapter 19 Benzene and Aromatic Compounds Chapter 20 Reactions of Aromatic Compounds Chapter 21 Radical Reactions Chapter 22 Amines Chapter 23 Amino Acids and Proteins Chapter 24 Carbohydrates Chapter 25 Lipids Chapter 26 Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis Chapter 27 Metabolism Chapter 28 Carbon—Carbon Bond-Forming Reactions in Organic Synthesis Chapter 29 Pericyclic Reactions Chapter 30 Synthetic Polymers TO REQUEST THE ABOVE TITLE , Please contact us via e-mail ONLY at smtbportal @ gmail dot com , We also have CONNECT Assignments / LearnSmart Quizzes for this text. Email for more info. Please DO NOT POST/REPLY HERE for any inquiry just email us at smtbportal(@)gmail(dot)com , Thanks
Hello all, I am currently taking AP Chemistry and we are studying the topic of acids and bases. Specifically, we just finished covering how to use ion size, electronegativity, resonance, and inductive effects to tell the relative strength of an acid based on the stability of the conjugate base (i.e: Which is stronger and why: HNO3, HNO2). However, one important aspect that he did not really cover was how to determine the relative strength of a base using similar trends, and he just said that it was based on charge stability and left it at that. The problem is that I do not understand what he means by this because he was so handwavy with the concept. Also, I asked him after class and he gave the same exact information without going into every detail.
· "The following report details the current state of geomagnetic activity and resulting effects on human consciousness, which can be used to guide one's activities in meditation, mass meditation, personal energy work, and self-mastery practices" ·
Report:
"The impact ofindividual and coordinated mass meditations will be HIGH, with conditions expected to persist for approximately 72 hours.
Geomagnetic conditions are highly stable, ranging from 0 to 2 of the KP index. A coronal mass ejection occurred this morning, which resulted in consistent plasma penetration events that will likely persist for the rest of the day. There are no major coronal-hole systems in the earth-facing position."
"High synchronicities, precognition, deja vu, energetic downloads, and connectivity to cosmic energy systems."
·
Social Effects:
"High capacity for telepathic exchanges in small or large groups."
·
Universal Effects:
"High energy and information streaming in from the celestial bodies, like surrounding planets, as well as stars, the galactic sun, and other galaxies."
·
Forecast:
"Meditations for the collective via outer work should have a high impact for approximately 72 hours ! ! ! :D
The coronal mass ejection caused in a influx of energy that will improve the conditions for inner-work. In addition, the extremely calm conditions of the geomagnetic field will also result in an influx of cosmic ray energies, further adding to the conditions for inner work." ·
Inner Work:
"Develop gratitude for the cosmic lessons received in the form of mirroring of oneself, like stubbing a toe, a friend being upset with us, or the genuine reactions of others and ourselves to life events.
All is information that reveals the nature of self and reality.
If one does not consciously invoke acceptance of circumstances and emboldens themselves to overcome those obstacles via inner growth, it is likely one will feel emotional upset and angst.
But with purpose and dedication to self-mastery, all challenges can be overcome so as to develop wisdom, personal growth, and a spiritual character.
"During quiet geomagnetic conditions, focus your meditations on forgiveness, social harmony, relaxation of tensions, and collective healing.
Strive to be honest and transparent with your desires that affect others. See the other self an extension of your own being, developing unconditional love balanced by honest communication and clear agreements.
When personal expectations are not met, communication with others wasn't clear, which is an opportunity to reflect on the methods of how we manifest our desires (with honestly and explicit communication or cowardice, fear, and blind faith others know what we want).
Social harmony is the constant building of trust with oneself and others, which creates inner and outer peace, harmony, and abundance."
"The recommendation and impact of meditations report only analyze the electromagnetic (material) aspect of consciousness, operating within the subluminal electromagnetic spectrum. Other, super-material, energetic, or spiritual mediums of informational transference (telepathic and energetic effects of meditation) will likely still have a profound affect, even if the geomagnetic conditions are chaotic that day.
Please do not assume this report is suggesting you avoid meditating on days when the impact is forecasted to be low !"
·
Scientific Basis of Telepathy, Mass Meditation, and Global Field Effects:
"The human organism is energetically linked to the earth via electromagnetic interactions in the extremely low-frequency range (ELF).
These frequencies interact with the global system via the Schumann Resonances, ranging from 7.83hz up to 39hz.
The human body, particularly the heart and brain, resonate at the same frequency range, measured by an EKG and EEG.
The Heart is a piezoelectric liquid crystal oscillator that produces strong electromagnetic pulses, which are governed or attenuated by the brain, radiating outwardly up to 30 feet from the body.
By way of inducing coherent states of mind (usually through meditation and/or chanting, sounding, yoga, or qi gong), the mind can focus the energies of the heart into a coherent field that is able to interact or "link up" with the global field."
"Dr. Michael Persinger conducted research on the global mind, postulating that the geomagnetic field, due to the Schumann frequency ranges, has the potential to link up with the human mind, allowing information to be "stored" in the earth's field.
He was able to historically demonstrate that during times of low geomagnetic activity, individuals experienced greater spontaneous cognition or received telepathic downloads. Conversely, during times of high geomagnetic activity, telepathic downloads decreased.
Dr. Persinger also worked with Igno Swann, an exemplary remote viewer who was involved in the DIA's Star Gate Program. Experiments were conducted that involved placing Swann in a coherent magnetic field with a second participant who was asked to look at a photograph. Swann then entered a meditative state and "viewed" the drawing via the coherent field and the other person's mind, enabling him to draw statistically significant depictions of what the second participant was looking at. Dr. Persinger was able to prove that a coherent magnetic field provides an energetic medium for the exchange of information between minds." · » Related Telepathy will be Enabled by the Earth's Magnetic Field on a Global Scale ·
"The geomagnetic field is the largest field on earth, immersing all living things and human beings within a coherent magnetic field.
Via the principal of entrainment or synchronization, governed by electromagnetic sympathetic resonance,information within a human being can "upload" to the geomagnetic field, which can then be "downloaded" to other people and have stabilizing effects on any electric body.
The greater the coherence of the individual, the more likely they are to inform the geomagnetic field. The greater the coherence of the geomagnetic field, the more likely the information can be shared between individuals.
During times of low geomagnetic activity, the human organism's electromagnetic field embeds within the geomagnetic field (phase conjugation), allowing information to be exchanged between each system coherently (without degradation).
During times of high geomagnetic activity, the human organism's electromagnetic field disconnects from the geomagnetic field, which has the effect of isolating each system from other systems."
·
Effects
"When people take the time to make themselves mentally and energetically coherent, by way of meditation techniques, while also visualizing or praying for peace, various types of stabilization effects can occur.
The Maharishi effect stabilized social systems, reducing crime and overall suffering of people on earth. In 1960, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi predicted that one percent of a population practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique would produce measurable improvements in the quality of life for the whole population. This phenomenon was first noticed in 1974 and reported in a paper published in 1976. Here, the finding was that when 1% of a community practiced the Transcendental Meditation® program, then the crime rate was reduced by 16% on average. At this time, the phenomenon was named Maharishi Effect. The meaning of this term was later extended to cover the influence generated by the group practice of the TM-Sidhi® program.
Generally, the Maharishi Effect may be defined as the influence of coherence and positivity in the social and natural environment generated by the practice of the TM and TM-Sidhi programs. (Source)
Dan Winter postulates that the effects of a coherent mind can be used to "steer a tornado" via a phase conjugate dielectric bioplasma produced by a shaman or person who has developed abilities in meditation and energy practices.
In other words, an individual can produce a bioelectric field that allows them to merge with another field, influencing the second to some degree.
This can be simply described by having genuine empathy and compassion for living energy systems, which could be people, places, weather systems, countries, and even the entire planet.
Non-living empathy, with dead buildings made out of steel and aluminum, will reduce the coherence of the person, and are to be avoided.
Meditating in nature or being surrounded by natural materials, like a wooden house or a cave, increases bioelectric coherence, strengthening an individual's ability to affect other systems. Conversely, attempting to link up with the earth's field from within an artificial "dead" structure, will reduce energetic embedding effects.
When Meditating(plannedwithothers,or)in close proximity with other people, particularly after hugging each person for a least 20 seconds, will increase the individual's brain-heart coherence as well as increase the coherence within the group, a kind of energetic tuning that increases the energy embedding effects mentioned above.
·
Group / Mass Meditation,(especiallyaftertuning),may have a greater impact than individual meditations.
·
:D
·
These effects suggest that depending on an individual's ability to develop coherence as well as what they visualize, they can have a profound impact of stabilizing weather and seismology."
This article (Global Mind Energy Report: Impact of Mass Meditations · VERY HIGH | February 12th, 2018) originally appeared on StillnessintheStorm.com and is free and open source. You have permission to share or republish this article in full so long as attribution to the author and the Stillness in the Storm site link, are provided." · Sources:
"Global Mind Energy Reports is a new project developed by Stillness in the Storm. Depending on the response from the audience, these could continue and have additional information added. Please post your comments and let us know what you think." · Additional Resources:
. . .Well guys. Since this shit obviously works, let's all do our best to join in another Meditation Session ongoing, thisupcoming Thursday,Feb | 15th | 18
I was thinking we could also plan another SoulNexus Mass Meditation for the 20th:) Start brainstorming ideas for the theme(s) for this one! ! ♡ ·
Why is 2-FMA such a different drug when you rail it?
2-FMA when taken orally is regarded as one of the most functional, useful, least euphoriant and straight up boring stims ever concocted. However if you rail a decent line of 2-FMA tingly, speedy wonderful rush of euphoria hits you instantaneously. It's one of the most meth-like feelings ever. I haven't done many drugs where the ROA can affect the feeling of the high as much as this one can. Are there any known reasons why this might be the case?
The biosynthesis of nano particles with a great deal of effort by using a 'Green technology' that gives an innocuous, inexpensive and environmental friendly approach has been widely used. The technology also leads to fabricate wonder materials for biomedical applications. The in vitro green approaches for the reduction of metal ions furnishes a flexible method to obtain nano particles with control over their size and shape that can be attributed to the flexibility of changing the medium pH and reaction temperature. This review provides an outlook on a range of devices and tools that can make a system for detection of a therapeutic agent and to determine its action on an intended target, facilitating the research in diagnosis and prevention of cancer. The validation of nano particles with these exciting approaches may serve a strong foundation for modified chemotherapies in the next phase of clinical trials which would lead to profound changes in oncological practices by facilitating the realization of personalized medicines through demonstration of safety as well as efficacy in human clinical trials. Keywords: Green technology; Wonder materials; Personalized medicines; Cancer; Modified chemotherapy. Keywords: Green technology; Wonder materials; Personalized medicines; Cancer; Modified chemotherapy
Since the first preparation of the nano-particles that was carried out by Michael Faraday as early as in 1857, nano has become a flavor in the world of science. Nanoparticles, because of their exciting phenomenon of small size and variable shapes as spherical, wiry, tubular or sheet like has gained tremendous importance in the areas of medical diagnostics, drug delivery, chemical industry, textile industry and electronics. The utilization of this technology for the preparation of nano based products in area of research and development is growing at a great pace and is still expected to grow further in the coming years. The revolutionary impact of nanoscience in today's world is associated with the unforeseen hazards of these particles related to its method of synthesis. The intersection of nanotechnology and biotechnology has led to a fairly new area of technology; Nano biotechnology. This new area of research has been used in the development of nanomedicine that covers health care related areas of nanoscience and technology and serves structured nanodevices to analyze the specific biological system.
The synthesis of nanomaterials and effective fabrication of nanostructures follows two basic approaches; the top down approach involves successive cutting of larger parts to get nano sized particles of smaller and smaller dimensions. Bottom up approach follows building of material from atoms or molecules or by clusters. However, the disadvantage associated with the top down approach is the structural damage leading to imperfection of surface structure and patterns. Bottom up approaches provides a better chance to form nano structure with fewer defects although; the process frequently in Nanotechnology is not a newer concept.
A remarkable area of nanoresearch is often concern with the global environment. A great deal of effort has been put on that provides a better platform for the biosynthesis of nano particles by using plants [1] that are more innocuous, inexpensive, and environmentally friendly as they do not leave hazardous residues to pollute the atmosphere [2-6]. Although, the chemical method of synthesis requires less time for the fabrication of large quantity of nano particles, but are considered toxic and often lead to products that are non-eco-friendly [7]. In recent years, the in vitro green approaches for the reduction of metal ions provides a flexible, method to obtain nano particles with control over their size and shape that can be attributed to the flexibility of changing the medium pH and reaction temperature [8]. Variety of different plant species in combination with acid and salts of metals can be used to reduce ions of gold, copper, silver, platinum, iron and many others [9].
Facilitating the research in diagnosis and prevention of diseases, Nanotechnology offers a range of devices and tools that can make a system for detection of a therapeutic agent and to determine its action on an intended target. In recent years, nanotechnology has become a boon in cancer research by helping the oncologist to spot the cancer in early stages by detecting biomarkers that are undetectable through conventional detection techniques. Nanotechnology researchers have provided nano medicine based approaches that have been considered safe and effective treatment of cancer. Of the advances driven by National Cancer Institute (NCI), the discrimination of a healthy and cancerous cell by the use of photo luminescent nano particles will enable the clinician to identify the precancerous lesions thereby providing an early signal to reverse the premalignant changes and also allowing a time release of an anticancer drug sequentially at a desired location (www.cancer.gov). Tumors targeting objective has also influenced the role of Gold Nano particles (AuNP's) by their conjugation to Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) and unique biomarker binded antibodies on tumor cells. The fabrication of AuNP's with PEG prevented the unwanted aggregation and lengthened the retention time in blood by preferential accumulation of the particles in the tumor [10]. In another study, researchers at Cornell University have figured out the attachment criteria of gold nano particles by merging with iron oxide into colorectal cancer cell seeking the role of antibodies that can deliver the gold to the cancerous cell which can be heated by passing infrared laser because of the efficient property of the tiny particles of gold alloy which in turn will kill the cancerous cells [11]. Nano particle based drug delivery have also gain considerable potential for effective drug delivery in cancer therapy. The major challenge in the treatment of the disease is to get the drug at a specific place that is needed thereby avoiding side effects to other non-targeted organs. The limitations associated with the chemotherapeutics used against such dreaded disease are their non-restricted cytotoxicity in context to increasing dosage concentration. The nano particle formulation resulted in enabling the strategy of targeted drug delivery and these includes benefits of their small size which allow an easy penetration into the cell membrane, binding and stabilization of protein and lysosomal escape after endocytosis [12] thereby leading to the development of faster and safer medicines. Recently, the emergence of numerous proteinic and other drugs for targeting various cellular process have created a demand for the development of intelligent drug delivery system [13]. To meet the requirements for intelligent release of therapeutic agents to perform various function of detection, isolation and treatment of diseased conditions, a smart delivery system such as stimuli responsive nano materials will be a promising approach [14]. Carbon nano tube with its hollow structure is one of the wonder nano material that have motivated the researchers to explore their potential in the application of drug delivery to transport drug molecules, proteins and nucleotides. The size and shape of these materials allow them to enter living cells by adhering covalently or non-covalently to the surface without causing cell damage [15]. The potential application of carbon nano tubes in biotechnology is of much interest for exhibiting its advantages in biosensors [16], biomedical devices [17] and drug delivery systems [18]. However, the fictionalizations of CNTs is needed to reduce the chances of cytotoxicity and improving their biocompatible properties. The surface properties of the CNTs greatly influence their internalization behavior into the cell that is aided by the hydrophilicity of the tube. Also, the shorter length nano tubes are more effectively transported across the cell than the bundled CNTs [19]. Engineering of polymeric nanostructures for drug delivery inputs the use of a highly branched polymer known as Dendrimers that resemble the architecture of a tree. These multi branched macromolecules have attracted the researchers for various application in many fields due to its low polydispersity and high functionality. Dendrimers have offered escalating attention in scientific research particularly in the area of biomedical and pharmaceutics as a potential drug vehicle. A well-defined globular structure of these materials ensures a reproductive pharmacokinetics besides causing an increased cellular uptake of the drugs conjugated to them [20]. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles have reported exponential increase in research and are one of the hottest areas in the field of nanomedicine and nano biotechnology for its functional application as biocompatible nanocarriers. With a mesoporous structure, MSNs have been explored to treat various kind of disease parameters including tissue engineering [21] diabetes [22] inflammation as well as cancer [23]. The unique tailor able structure of mesoporous silica nano particle with their high surface area to large pore volume endow them to encapsulate variety of therapeutic agent to emphasize the targeted delivery into desired location [24]. Currently, delivery of variety of molecules of pharmaceutical interest has been appeared by employing mesoporous materials [25]. Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle of size 50 to 300nm is considered facile for endocytosis without cytoxicity. Materials including MCM-41, SBA-15, SBA-1, SBA-3, HMS and MSU are groups of mesoporous biocompatibility and release kinetics of various drugs [13] materials that have been functionalized for improving the (Figure 1). Nanotechnology in toxicity outlook; a concern/ lacunae) Although the use of wide variety of nanostructures continued to alter the current scenario of cancer disease and diagnostics as a carrier system due to its biocompatibility and ability to reduce systemic toxicity, a crucial investigation regarding the toxicological effect of nanoparticles and the route of particle administration as a potential source of toxicity has to be emphasized which may arise due to its size, shape, dosage, charge as well as surface chemistry. The effect of these Nano materials results from its interaction particularly with the proteins that may lead to clumping of the protein molecules and linking up of various medical conditions. The large sized particles, once inside will move to circulation and may accumulate in organs including liver, spleen heart and brain. Also, direct cell to cell transfer of these particles is very unlikely as the pores between the cells are even smaller than their size. The absorption and opsonisation of nanomaterials or nanoparticles by serum protein may alter the effective size of the particles resulting in the change of an in vivo hydrodynamic diameter which is often lager than the size of in vitro Nanoparticles. There may be different trends of bio toxicity of nanomaterials in different ranges. Therefore, with the explosive increase in the research of this robust technology, it is necessary to have a concern outlook to fulfill the biomedical demand by well controlled fabrication of nano materials prior to be implemented in clinical practices.
The tremendous effort of the scientist towards protective utilization of nano particle based medicines or Nano medicines in fighting against cancer are showing promising outcomes. Concerning the issues associated with the drug circulation time and a localized therapy to the site of the disease, the utilization of Nano based therapeutics have a clear benefits than the unmodified drugs. The progress route of Nano therapeutics has already been demonstrated in the clinic. Doxorubicin contained in a hollow nanoparticle used to treat ovarian cancer was the first Nano based cancer drug approved by Food and Drug Administration. Likewise, the evidence of nanoparticle delivered clinical RNA interference (RNAi) published in Nature [26], first demonstrated by Calando Pharmaceuticals was approved by FDA in various stages of trials. The reduction of lung and toxillar lesion with a nanoparticle based therapeutic whereby the particles were combined with prostrate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) was reported by BIND Biosciences [27]. The outcome of the trial was greater efficacy compared to a lone drug at substantially lower doses. Furthermore, an albumin functionalized paclitaxel formulation of Celgene's Abraxane has got recognition for its necessary effect in the treatment of lung and pancreatic cancer along with breast cancer therapy by FDA (The-Scientist.com). Drs. Ciaus Radu, Owen Witte and Micheal Phelps have designed a series of positron emission tomography (PET) at the Nano system Biology Cancer Center. The system was used for assigning chemotherapy to the patients such as gemcitabine, cytarabine, fludarabine and others to treat metastatic breast cancer, ovarian, lung as well as leukaemia and lymphomas. A bio distribution study was also conducted in eight healthy volunteers. A nanoparticle magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent found on the surface of newly developing blood vessels associated with early detection of tumor was developed by Dr. Gregory Lanza and his team at Siteman Center of Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence, Washington University. Phase I clinical trial was performed for assessing the utility of the agent in early detection of tumor. A Nano sphere diagnostic company founded by Dr. Chad Mirkin at Nanomaterial for cancer diagnostic and therapeutic center has received approval by FDA for detecting cancer biomarkers by using Nano sensor. A clinical study using human tissue sample was performed to monitor low level of Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) successfully Nanomaterial using silica, metal, polymers as well as carbon based particles have been demonstrated on preclinical front which shows satisfactory results. Recently, a report on multi drug delivery action and efficacy of nanoparticles to mediate resistance in relapsing cancer and improving triple negative breast cancer was by a team of researchers (The-Scientist.com). Other approaches including layer by layer siRNA delivery for breast cancer, sequential administration of Nanoparticles for pancreatic cancer treatment and tumor penetrating peptides against ovarian cancer are very recent. Thus, the validation of nanoparticles with these exciting approaches may serve a strong foundation for modified chemotherapies in the next phase of clinical trials which would lead to profound changes in oncological practices by facilitating the realization of personalized medicines through demonstration of safety as well as efficacy in human clinical trials.
Dealing with the most significant issue of cancer cells of Multi Drug Resistance (MDR) the heightened technology has shown inimitable benefits owing to a targeted delivery with its small sized vectors. The clinical prospects of nano materials are tremendously affecting the treatment of malignant cells which are more likely to possess the scene of multi drug resistance. The use of dendrimers as a promising material in nanooncology has been proved as an ideal candidate for delivering drugs to the tumor region, Besides this, dendrimers have been investigated for its use in killing bacterial cells as well as an agent for gene transfer and trans-membrane transport [12]. The case of synthesis of carbon nanotubes are considered as one of the strongest nano materials for considering the pathobiology of the disease under treatment. The efficient possibility of the nano tubes to target the cell receptors and blocking the cellular pathway of the disease by enabling the drug through the cell membrane is however a preferable system to kill the tumor. The promise of a successful cancer treatment using gold nano particles have led to bio affinity of gold nano particle probes for molecular and cellular imaging for early screening of the cancerous cells [28]. Mesoporous silica nano particles also meet the demand of cancer therapy by reducing the toxicity issues of many chemotherapeutic drugs. Due to the highly dynamic and heterogenous nature of the cancer, they can readily adapt to the stress imposed onto them. MSN-based nanocomposites target different phenotypes of a tumour thus holding a promising way to develop a co-operative therapy. FDA has recently approves a kind of ultrasound multimodal silica nanoparticles(Cornell dots) against advanced melanoma for even more specific diagnosis [24]. Besides that, the green method of synthesizing nanoparticles generated using plant phytochemicals can be also used in the discovery of new biomarkers and thus forming the basis of new drugs to fight cancer with refining diagnosis [29].
Nanotechnology covers a lot of domain today and will cover a lot more in near future. The creation of nanodevices with their changing form and multiple purposes as in cancer research will help in understanding the behavior of physiological markers of a disease and responsiveness of a drug [30-33]. Thus, exploiting the materials at atom and molecular level for the promising production of new materials controlling their shape and size at nano scale level has become a matter of potential concern. Also, it is necessary to envision that green method of synthesis of the base product of these devices has number of substantial benefits in context to several parameters including non-toxicity and cost effectiveness. However, the assessment of nano materials into human body while treating several disparities, the release of particulate materials into the disease environment as well as the extent to which they enter the intended sites of penetration will determine the ultimate risk of exposure particularly for those that cannot be metabolize by our body. Therefore, it is worth considering before formulating them into such scenarios.
Is 1,2 addition always Mark addition and 1,4 addition always conjugate addition? I ask because one of the questions say to draw addition and conjugate addition product for each reaction so I am not sure if by addition they mean 1,2 and by conjugate addition they mean 1,4?!
Why does it show its adding the four carbons with two double bonds to the two carbons with one double bond yet product only shows 1 double bond? Which is a cyclohexene correct? How was stereochemistry determined for the first product? Why H going out and EWG coming in? Is that always the case, H is out? What about second product, they added two double bonds to a triple bond and we got a cyclohexene but this time with two double bonds, also why was stereo chemistry not included here?
Why on one side it shows empty p-orbital on the white thing while it shows empty p-orbital on grey thing, whats an empty p-orbital anyway? Is that just a mistake, and reason why its empty p-orbital is cos it doesn't having a double bond? When it says which carbon has the positive charge is it okay to label the left one as carbon 3 and the right one as carbon 1 and those have the positive charge? I am not sure for the question it says which carbon atoms have pi electrons, are those the shared electrons? And in that case the first structure, C1 and C2 have the pi electrons and second structure, C2 and C3 have the pi electrons correct? Then it actually answers the question and says that the pi electrons are delocalized because of the resonance hybrid. It doesn't explain why we combine the two structures like that to get a hybrid, I am not even sure how they combine the structures?
Hi all, just had some questions from my study guide and from my lecture, most of these questions are already answered but I am mainly looking for the concept, appreciate all the help in advance! Q1: https://imgur.com/EsmqjjD Q1 | Answer A: https://imgur.com/m3fzRxb Is the answer correct? Shouldn't the Cl be placed on the second carbon not the first carbon for the "conjugate addition" and also for the "addition product" shouldn't Cl be placed on the fourth carbon? Where is the H? Shouldn't the H be placed on the first carbon and Cl on the second? While for the 1,4 it should be H on the first carbon and Cl on the fourth or am I wrong here? Here is what I mean: https://imgur.com/n1ErJAG The red marks show where the Cl and H would be, please lmk if this is wrong guys! Is conjugate addition and addition product different than 1,2 and 1,4 addition or whats going on here? Q2: https://imgur.com/Nxp5BlR Answer: https://imgur.com/869Yd1P https://imgur.com/QgCUO62 The thing I am confused about here is not the mechanism, I already know Cl leaves and we get an intermediate which has resonance and thus we get two products.The thing I am confused about is why we only add OEt? What happens to the H in EtOH? Scrath that I see now how we get rid of the H because the O becomes charged due to 3 bonds to it, so we get rid of the hydrogen to get a neutral oxygen. Also its actually being added as OEt not even EtO, is there a difference? Comparing this question to the first question, how to know when I have a 1,2/1,4 addition vs where question 2 we see how Cl leaves? Are there some signs? I know in 1,2 and 1,4 its usually 1,3-butadiene but thats not always the case, I am guessing I will just wait until the professor says "do 1,2 and 1,4 products here" or smth like that. If you could tell me what kind of mechanism question 2 is then that would be great, some sort of allylic halide substituion? Finally, since we have two products is it safe to say that we have SN1 and SN2 products where the rearrangement gona go for SN1 and for the straight substitution its going to be SN2?! Q3: https://imgur.com/FYlU9YH This one I don't have an answer for, I know we just substituted the Bromine in, which I guess is SN2 or whats going on here? A mechanism for this would be awesome if possible. Q4: https://imgur.com/GbfTSlC Is their a reason why the H is going out and EWG is coming in here? Couldn't I do it where EWG is coming in and H is going out or is there some sort of general rule for stereo chemistry when we are not given any indications for these types of scnarios? Q5: https://imgur.com/ejuEliG Is -53 more energy than -30? If so, does that mean its less stable than -30? Or is it reverse? -30 has more energy than -53 and therefore -30 is more stable? Q6: https://imgur.com/O3JHk2g Is 360 kj more energy than 452 kj? If so, then why is allylic the most stable here? Shouldn't high energy means its less stable? If not then I am confused on this slide: https://imgur.com/0NSw46v Similar to Q6, why does it in Q6 says allyl systems are most stable yet here it says it reacts the fastest? Halp!
Is 1,2 addition always Mark addition and 1,4 addition always conjugate addition? I ask because one of the questions say to draw addition and conjugate addition product for each reaction so I am not sure if by addition they mean 1,2 and by conjugate addition they mean 1,4?!
Why does it show its adding the four carbons with two double bonds to the two carbons with one double bond yet product only shows 1 double bond? Which is a cyclohexene correct? How was stereochemistry determined for the first product? Why H going out and EWG coming in? Is that always the case, H is out? What about second product, they added two double bonds to a triple bond and we got a cyclohexene but this time with two double bonds, also why was stereo chemistry not included here?
Why on one side it shows empty p-orbital on the white thing while it shows empty p-orbital on grey thing, whats an empty p-orbital anyway? Is that just a mistake, and reason why its empty p-orbital is cos it doesn't having a double bond? When it says which carbon has the positive charge is it okay to label the left one as carbon 3 and the right one as carbon 1 and those have the positive charge? I am not sure for the question it says which carbon atoms have pi electrons, are those the shared electrons? And in that case the first structure, C1 and C2 have the pi electrons and second structure, C2 and C3 have the pi electrons correct? Then it actually answers the question and says that the pi electrons are delocalized because of the resonance hybrid. It doesn't explain why we combine the two structures like that to get a hybrid, I am not even sure how they combine the structures?
[College Ochem] Double checking questions from study guide and lecture
Hi all, just had some questions from my study guide and from my lecture, most of these questions are already answered but I am mainly looking for the concept, appreciate all the help in advance! Q1: https://imgur.com/EsmqjjD Q1 | Answer A: https://imgur.com/m3fzRxb Is the answer correct? Shouldn't the Cl be placed on the second carbon not the first carbon for the "conjugate addition" and also for the "addition product" shouldn't Cl be placed on the fourth carbon? Where is the H? Shouldn't the H be placed on the first carbon and Cl on the second? While for the 1,4 it should be H on the first carbon and Cl on the fourth or am I wrong here? Here is what I mean: https://imgur.com/n1ErJAG The red marks show where the Cl and H would be, please lmk if this is wrong guys! Is conjugate addition and addition product different than 1,2 and 1,4 addition or whats going on here? Q2: https://imgur.com/Nxp5BlR Answer: https://imgur.com/869Yd1P https://imgur.com/QgCUO62 The thing I am confused about here is not the mechanism, I already know Cl leaves and we get an intermediate which has resonance and thus we get two products.The thing I am confused about is why we only add OEt? What happens to the H in EtOH? Scrath that I see now how we get rid of the H because the O becomes charged due to 3 bonds to it, so we get rid of the hydrogen to get a neutral oxygen. Also its actually being added as OEt not even EtO, is there a difference? Comparing this question to the first question, how to know when I have a 1,2/1,4 addition vs where question 2 we see how Cl leaves? Are there some signs? I know in 1,2 and 1,4 its usually 1,3-butadiene but thats not always the case, I am guessing I will just wait until the professor says "do 1,2 and 1,4 products here" or smth like that. If you could tell me what kind of mechanism question 2 is then that would be great, some sort of allylic halide substituion? Finally, since we have two products is it safe to say that we have SN1 and SN2 products where the rearrangement gona go for SN1 and for the straight substitution its going to be SN2?! Q3: https://imgur.com/FYlU9YH This one I don't have an answer for, I know we just substituted the Bromine in, which I guess is SN2 or whats going on here? A mechanism for this would be awesome if possible. Q4: https://imgur.com/GbfTSlC Is their a reason why the H is going out and EWG is coming in here? Couldn't I do it where EWG is coming in and H is going out or is there some sort of general rule for stereo chemistry when we are not given any indications for these types of scnarios? Q5: https://imgur.com/ejuEliG Is -53 more energy than -30? If so, does that mean its less stable than -30? Or is it reverse? -30 has more energy than -53 and therefore -30 is more stable? Q6: https://imgur.com/O3JHk2g Is 360 kj more energy than 452 kj? If so, then why is allylic the most stable here? Shouldn't high energy means its less stable? If not then I am confused on this slide: https://imgur.com/0NSw46v Similar to Q6, why does it in Q6 says allyl systems are most stable yet here it says it reacts the fastest? Halp!
Question 7.3.4/01.Electronic_Structure_and_Bonding(Acidsand_Bases)/1.24___A_Summary_of_the_Factors_that_Determine_Acid_Strength) Please scroll all the way down to see the problem. Thank you! Alright so with this question I’m kind of confused on a couple things. First apparently the ranking of the acids go from A>B>C. Was I not supposed to look at the conjugate bases and first look at size first? I wanted to say both Bromine molecules would be more acidic but they said Chlorine was more acidic then both based on size but apparently were supposed to look at electronegativity? Why is that. Secondly, how can be B be more acidic than C? From what I’ve read so far from my textbook (Brown), the closer a dipole movement is to an atom with negative charges (sp2 oxygens means resonance exists and would thus have partial negative charges) the more stable the conjugate base and thus the more acidic the molecule. B has a dipole but it’s not close to the site where acidity matters compared to C. I did this evaluation after removing hydrogens from the hydroxyl group. What am I messing up on with this concept?
Understanding the relative acid strengths of methanol, water, ethanol and tert-butanol
Hello everyone, I am trying to learn how to figure out how to figure out the most acidic molecule/substance when given a choice. My post has a question but also I'd like your wisdom in validating/refining my understanding of acids/bases as they relate to organic chemistry. To my understanding so far, Water is more acidic than all alcohols except methanol. The relevant pKa values: CH3OH 15.54 H2O 15.74 CH3CH2OH 15.9 Tert-Butanol around 19 While I appreciate that all have similar acid strength, there are subtle differences and I would like to understand why (relating back to the structure of the molecule) that causes it to be more acidic. Can anyone explain nice and cleanly why the order of acidity (from strongest to weakest) is methanol, water, ethanol then tert-butanol? Possible reasons that I have seen on the internet (that I either don't understand or were poorly explained) mention: inductive effect, solvation effects, something about being a better nucleophile, CH3 being an "electron releasing group", ethoxide being a stronger base than hydroxide, something about linearity My current understanding of deciding acid strength is: The stronger acid has the more stable conjugate base, due to:
increased electronegativity e.g. HF stronger than NH3 because fluorine is more electronegative than nitrogen
larger ion size/atomic size (e.g. HI is a stronger acid than HF because the larger iodine has more room to spread out and stabilise its negative charge)
carbons hybridised with more S character (sp>sp2>sp3) since the s-orbital is closer to the nucleus and hence those electrons experience a stronger force of attraction, resulting in carbon being more electronegative and better at stabilising the conjugate base
resonance stabilisation of conjugate base (more resonance structures = more stable)
inductive effect of electron withdrawal groups (e.g. more electronegative halogen substituent can better pull electrons towards itself, resulting in a more stable conjugate base)
distance between the acidic part and electron withdrawal group (e.g. in 2 constitutional isomers, the molecule with the acidic part and electron withdrawal group closer together will be more acidic)
I am also aware that lower pKa values mean stronger acidity and that the stronger the base, the weaker its conjugate acid. I am trying to obtain a simplified (first year uni level) conceptual understanding so as to be in the best position to make educated guesses about what is the stronger acid, ultimately to help me predict reactants/products of complicated biochemistry reactions. Please let me know if there is anything I wrote that I completely misunderstood. My apologies for the long post!
How to learn everything for a chemistry exam in two weeks?
Hey everyone, I'm a first year at uni and I have my chemistry final in two weeks. Problem is I haven't taken chemistry in four years and the lectures haven't been very helpful so far. I need to learn almost everything covered on my own. Does anyone have any advice on how I'm supposed to tackled all of this in 14 days? I've already promised myself to not let myself in this type of situation again. Thank you so much. These are the topics covered: Basic Concepts (An Introduction to Atomic and Molecular Structure and the Concept of the Mole.) - Structure and properties of atoms; electron configurations; atomic orbitals; ions, ionisation and ionic structures; the covalent bond, covalent radii, bonding capacities; single and multiple bonds, hybridisation, bond energies, shapes of molecules, emphasising relevance to biological systems; resonance; polarity and electronegativity, polar covalent bonds, dipole moments, hydrogen bonding; essential and non-essential elements. The concept of oxidation state. Molecular weights, the concept of the mole, mole ratios, balancing equations and the stoichiometry of reactions. Describe importance in a biological context – e.g. enzyme assay. Biomolecules (The Constitution and Shapes of Organic Molecules and Biological Intermediates.) - The importance of organic chemistry in biology. The hydrocarbon framework, the concept of hybridisation in carbon bonding. Single, double and triple bonds; aromaticity in benzene rings. Identification and fundamental properties of functional groups in organic chemistry. Structural isomerism, geometric isomerism; conjugation and aromaticity; conformation in acyclic and cyclic molecules; non-bonded interactions and angle strain; Important structural features in biomolecular systems. Chirality, the R, S and D, L conventions; enantiomers and diastereomers in Nature (amino acids & simple sugars as examples). Chemical Reactions. What drives Metabolic Processes? - Bond making and breaking; enthalpy, spontaneity of reactions and free energy; entropy. Hess’s law; the biological standard state. The reversibility of reactions, introduction to equilibria, equilibrium constants; relationship between free energy and equilibrium, examples drawn from biological systems e.g. binding of ligands to biological macromolecules (Km), solubility (KSP), acid-base equilibria (KA and KB), the pH scale, buffers. Response of systems to changes; activation energy, enzymes. Biological Organic Molecules. Lipids - structures, sources and characteristics of fats and steroids. Carbohydrates including mono- and polysaccharides. Properties and separation of amino acids. Structures and properties of peptides, polypeptides and proteins. Nucleosides, nucleotides and nucleic acids. Introduction to the role of metals in biologically important large molecules.
Which of these classes are Inorganic Chemistry 1 & 2 vs. Regular Chemistry 1 & 2?
These are course listings from UCLA.
Chemistry XL 14A Atomic and Molecular Structure, Equilibria, Acids, and Bases
Chemistry XL 14B Thermodynamics, Electrochemistry, Kinetics, and Organic Chemistry
Chemistry XL 14BL General and Organic Chemistry Laboratory I
Chemistry XL 14C Structure of Organic Molecules
Chemistry XL 14CL General and Organic Chemistry Laboratory II
Chemistry XL 14D Organic Reactions and Pharmaceuticals
EDIT Description: 14A. Atomic and Molecular Structure, Equilibria, Acids, and Bases. (4) Lecture, three hours; discussion, one hour. Preparation: high school chemistry or equivalent background and three and one-half years of high school mathematics. Not open to students with credit for course 20A. Introduction to physical and general chemistry principles; atomic structure based on quantum mechanics; atomic properties; trends in periodic table; chemical bonding (Lewis structures, VSEPR theory, hybridization, and molecular orbital theory); gaseous and aqueous equilibria; properties of inorganic and organic acids, bases, buffers; titrations. P/NP or letter grading. 14B. Thermodynamics, Electrochemistry, Kinetics, and Organic Chemistry. (4) Lecture, three hours; discussion, one hour. Enforced requisite: course 14A with grade of C- or better. Enforced corequisite: Mathematics 3A or 31A. Not open to students with credit for course 20A, 20B, or 30A. Phase changes; thermochemistry; first, second, and third laws of thermodynamics; free energy changes; electrochemistry and its role as energy source; chemical kinetics, including catalysis, reaction mechanisms, and enzymes; coordination compounds; general classes and naming of organic molecules; structure, conformations, and relative energies of organic molecules; application of thermodynamics and kinetics to organic and biochemical reactions; use of molecular modeling software to illustrate molecular structures and their relative energies. P/NP or letter grading. 14BL. General and Organic Chemistry Laboratory I. (3) Lecture, one hour; laboratory, three hours. Enforced requisite: course 14A with grade of C- or better. Enforced corequisite: course 14B. Not open to students with credit for course 20L. Introduction to volumetric, spectrophotometric, and potentiometric analysis. Use and preparation of buffers and pH meters. Synthesis and kinetics techniques using compounds of interest to students in life sciences. P/NP or letter grading. 14C. Structure of Organic Molecules. (4) Lecture, three hours; discussion, one hour. Enforced requisite: course 14B with grade of C- or better. Not open to students with credit for course 30A. Continuing studies in structure of organic molecules, with emphasis on biological applications. Resonance, stereochemistry, conjugation, and aromaticity; spectroscopy (NMR, IR, and mass spectrometry); introduction to effects of structure on physical and chemical properties; survey of biomolecular structure. P/NP or letter grading. 14CL. General and Organic Chemistry Laboratory II. (4) Lecture, one hour; laboratory, six hours. Enforced requisites: courses 14B and 14BL, with grades of C- or better. Enforced corequisite: course 14C. Synthesis and analysis of compounds; purification by extraction, chromatography, recrystallization, and sublimation; characterization by mass spectroscopy, UV, NMR, and IR spectroscopy, optical activity, electrochemistry, pH titration. P/NP or letter grading. 14D. Organic Reactions and Pharmaceuticals. (4) Lecture, three hours; discussion, one hour. Enforced requisite: course 14C with grade of C- or better. Organic reactions, nucleophilic and electrophilic substitutions and additions; electrophilic aromatic substitutions, carbonyl reactions, catalysis, molecular basis of drug action, and organic chemistry of pharmaceuticals. P/NP or letter grading.
H7PN4 (Imidophosphoric acid triamide) as a strong base in aqueous solution?
Firstly, please forgive my lack of chemistry knowledge, I'm still in middle school and just happen to have an interest in chemistry (particularly organic chemistry) So, strong acids (e.g. sulfuric acid, perchloric acid) are pretty common in chemistry and they can dissolve in water to form strongly acidic solutions, but when it comes to bases, it's pretty much just group 1 metal hydroxides for strong bases. Stronger ones like alkoxides and hydrides will react with water to generate the conjugate acid and hydroxide That then led me to think, since the strong acidity of sulfuric and perchloric acids are due to the resonance stabilisation of their conjugate bases, can the same be done for bases and their conjugate acids? I drew a structure of what I thought would be a strong base (the compond in the title). After that molecule gets protonated, I would think that the P=N pi-bond would delocalize across the molecule and stabilize the cation. I did a google search on this compound and found it's name and CAS number (14700-19-7), but wasn't able to find much more information on it. So, 1. Is there anything wrong with my concepts of chemistry? and 2. Does anyone have any information on the properties of this compound (and any similar ones)?
A TAs Comments on Substitution vs Elimination Reactions for First Semester Undergraduates
This were my last words to my students before their exam comparing substitution/elimination reactions: This unit is heavily conceptual, giving us the principles that guide acid-base reactions. We use this to develop an intuition to predict reaction pathways even given chemicals we have never seen before. We want to make sure we recognize the important mechanistic differences between the bimolecular (Sn2 and E2) and unimolecular reactions (Sn1 and E1, as well E1cb which is entirely different than E1 not a subset). Substitution and elimination is a topic of acid-base chemistry, and the two processes often compete with each other because it's a question of nucleophilic and basic properties. Good nucleophiles are often good bases (not always the case! for example I-), but some fantastic bases are terrible nucleophiles (sterics!). Good leaving groups are weak conjugate bases; they come from a strong acid, which we recognize to accommodate negative charge well following dissociation). Sn2 and E2 both have a concerted (all at once!) mechanism, and do not involve a formally charged carbon atom. A nucleophile either interacts with the backside antibonding orbital of the carbon-leaving group bond (giving invertive substitution) or with a hydrogen antiperiplanar to the leaving group (eliminating, establishing a double bond along that plane). While solvent alone can't dictate the reaction path, polar aprotic solvents favor substitution while protic favor elimination. Sn2 favors polar aprotic solvents which strongly solvate cations leaving “naked” anions, with the rate being inhibited by polar protic solvents due to enhanced solvation of the nucleophilic anion. Sn1 and E1 both go through a carbocation and often directly compete. A small enough nucleophile that can approach the empty p orbital of the flat carbocation will lead to substitution; a physically larger nucleophile may not be able to interact with anything but hydrogen (which is not as electrophilic as the formally charged carbocation but still electrophilic). E1cb occurs under basic conditions and goes through a anion, which is the Conjugate Base of the starting material; it involves the stepwise removal of a hydrogen (rendered acidic by inductive electronegative atoms nearby that likely also permit resonance) followed by the loss of a typically poor leaving group (OH- or OR-) which we compensate for by forming a stronger double bond (C=C or C=O). Something to consider: we can actually favor elimination over substitution by increasing the temperature of a reaction. Elimination produces 3 products while substitution produces 2. Prove this to yourself by writing out both generic reaction labeled with Nu-/B- and LG-!! Then recall the equation for delta G. Increasing temperature increases entropy's effect on the path of a reaction! This is the manifestation of entropy favoring the path that leads to greatest disorder (elimination!). PS Don't forget, have a go to base/solvent for elimination... potassium tertbutoxide in tbutanol (KOtBu/HOtBu)!
Conjugation In Organic Chemistry: Definition, Examples, Exploration, and Consequences. This is the first in a series of posts that will eventually cover conjugation, pi systems, molecular orbital theory, dienes, 1,2- and 1,4- additions, the Diels Alder reaction and other pericyclic reactions. Classify each diene as isolated or conjugated and draw a resonance structure involving the maximum number of pi bonds: a) Check your answers. b) Check your answers. c) Check your answers. d) Check your answers . e) Check your answers. f) Check your answers. 2. Carotenes are highly conjugated compounds responsible for the color of autumn leaves, many fruits and vegetables such as apricots ... Map: Organic Chemistry (Smith) Chapter 16: Conjugation, Resonance, & Dienes Expand/collapse global location 16.1: Conjugation Last updated; Save as PDF Page ID 31026; Allylic Carbocation. Molecular Orbitals of an Allylic Carbocation; 1,3-Dienes; Conjugated vs. Nonconjugated Dienes; Stability of Conjugated Dienes; Molecular Orbitals of 1,3 Dienes; Contributors; Allylic Carbocation. Conjugation ... Conjugation, Resonance, and Dienes, Organic Chemistry - Janice Gorzynski Smith All the textbook answers and step-by-step explanations Conjugation and Aromaticity The Chemistry of Dienes. 1. Properties of Dienes When considering compounds having two or more double bonds in a molecule, it is useful to identify three distinct ways in which these functions may be oriented with respect to each other. First, the double bonds may be separated by one or more sp 3-hybridized carbon atoms, as in 1,5-hexadiene. In this circumstance ... Why it is also termed no-bond resonance? It is a special type of resonance which involves the interaction or overlapping between a filled σ-bond orbital and empty p- orbital or Π – orbital of an adjacent carbon atom. Eg. In the structure [II] there is no bond between H + and C , so hyperconjugation is also termed as “ no-bond resonance”. Number of hyperconjugative structures = Number ... Filed Under: Chemistry Tagged With: conjugate system, conjugated system, conjugation, electron cloud, resonance, resonance structures About the Author: Admin Coming from Engineering cum Human Resource Development background, has over 10 years experience in content developmet and management. Chemistry Stack Exchange is a question and answer site for scientists, academics, teachers, and students in the field of chemistry. It only takes a minute to sign up. Sign up to join this community. Anybody can ask a question Anybody can answer The best answers are voted up and rise to the top Home Questions Tags Users Unanswered What is the difference between resonance and π conjugation. Ask ... This type of conjugation occurs in alkenes and alkyl substituted aromatic compounds. Sigma bond – π bond overlap. No bond Resonance. Stability of Alkenes. We know that the greater is the number of resonating structures, the more will be stability of the system. Thus tetrasubstituted alkene is the most stable and ethylene is the least stable. Organic Chemistry I (Cortes) ... The stabilizing effect of charge and electron delocalization is known as resonance energy. Since conjugation brings up electron delocalization, it follows that the more extensive the conjugated system, the more stable the molecule (i.e. the lower its potential energy). If there are positive or negative charges, they also spread out as a result of resonance.The ...
PLAYLISTS at web site: www.digital-university.org #Resonance #Conjugation Chemistry For AIIMS NEET JEE MAINS, Chemistry For 11th Class,12th Class, Chemistry For CBSE Board exam Tricks For Inductive Effect -I... Conjugation is the link between the unhybrid electrons of carbon atoms. The position of alternate single and double bonds is the basic reason of conjugation.... in this video i have explained one of the most important phenomenon in organic chemistry i.e hyperconjugation in detail in hindi.want to show your support?d... More substituted carbocations tend to be more stable. Here, Professor Davis explains the role of hyperconjugation in the process of stabilizing this critica... Resonance in benzene and the carbonate ionMore free lessons at: http://www.khanacademy.org/video?v=6XOm3Km7r30 in this video i have explained one of the most important phenomenon of organic chemistry i.e resonance . this video is useful for iit jee , neet , iit jam ,... PDF (Nature of Bonding In Organic Chemistry)Complete Handmade Notes.-https://kanhaiyapatel.stores.instamojo.com/product/241663/organic-chemistry-unit-1/-----... This video explained about when Resonance takes place? Tips for types of conjugated systems.